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The first thing to examine is the nature and possibilities of each instrument. Nothing replaces first-hand contact with performers,
who can answer questions and give demonstrations. String and wind players should, above all, share the knowledge of their
specific instruments with each other, and pianists should keep on good terms will all of them.
References
This chapter is not meant to be an exhaustive presentation of the art of orchestration. A great deal of valid material is
available and it is left to the learner to pick out what seems the most suitable. Our task will be to present (a) a general
definition of transposing instruments, as well as one of timbre, (b) some general principles of articulation (staccato-legato)
and volume control, as well as (c) some examples of orchestration corrections to well-known classical works.
Text-books
Here are a few classical manuals which you might find useful. Some modern works might be far better and it might be a good
idea of looking around, possibly via Google.
Berlioz - Strauss
H. Berlioz - R. Strauss
Treatise on Instrumentation
Translated by Theodore Front
Edwin F. Kalmus, Publisher of Music, New York, N.Y. 1948
Written by Berlioz in 1844 and revised by Strauss in 1904, this is probably the first important work on the subject.
"In the art of instrumentation, as in other arts, the question of theoretical books is highly problematic. Therefore,
if the student wants to achieve more, he should not only study the scores of the great masters, but above all ask instrumentalists
of all kinds to familiarize him with the exact technique of their instruments and with the timbre of their registers."
"The origin of the symphonic orchestra is to be found mostly in Haydn's and Mozart's string quartets (as well as
in Bach's organ fugues). The asymphonic works of these two masters reveal in their style, in their themes, melodies and configurations
the character of the string quartet with all its polyphonic possibilities. One might almost call them string quartets with
obligato wood-wind and noise instruments to reinforce the tutti (French horns, trumpets, kettle-drums). In spite of the greater
number of wind instruments used in his Fifth and Ninth Symphonies, even Beethoven cannot hide the mark of chamber music. In
Beethoven, more than in Haydn and Mozart, the spirit of the piano injects its characteristic elements - the same spirit which
later completely dominates Schumann's and Brahms' orchestral works (unfortunately, not always to their advantage or to the
listener's enjoyment). Only Liszt with his instinct for tone colors succeeded in filling this spirit of the piano in the orchestra
with new poetic life."
"The beautiful melodic contours of the four equally important parts in the classical string quartet attained their
highest freedom, worthy of Bach's choral polyphony, in Beethoven's last ten quartets. There is none of this freedom in Beethoven's
nine symphonies. But Wagner found in it the style for his "Tristan" and "Meistersinger" orchestra; he owes to it the unheardof,
miraculous sounds of his string quintet."
"The genius of Richard Wagner finally achieved a synthesis of two directions. He combined the symphonic (polyphonic)
technique of composition and orchestration with the rich expressive resources of the dramatic (homophonic) style."
There are 150 examples in this book and the 18 chosen authors, as well as the number of examples chosen from each, clearly
denotes Strauss' teutonic bias (not one Russian among them) ; Wagner (64), Gluck (17), Berlioz (16), Beethoven (15), Meyerbeer
(9), Mozart (6), Liszt (3), Weber (3), Strauss (2), Verdi (2), Rossini (2), Méhul (2), Spontini (2), Bizet (1), Debussy (1),
Auber (1), Halévy (1), Marschner (1).
Rimsky-Korsakoff
Nikolay Rimsky-Korsakov
Principles of Orchestration
with musical examples drawn from his own works
Dover Publications, Inc. New York, N.y. 1964
This work was written between 1896 and 1908, and published in Russia in 1913. It is quite different from the Berlioz-Strauss
work in the sense that it gives a greater part of attention to the "mixing" of instruments and timbres, rather than just defining
them individually. In general, Rimsky-Korsakoff has a more modern, French-Russian, attitude than Strauss who has remained
more polyphonic oriented.
"The best plan is to study full-scores, and listen to an orchestra, score in hand. But it is difficult to decide
what music should be studied and heard. Music of all ages, certainly, but, principally, that which is fairly modern. Fairly
modern music will teach the student how to score - classical music will prove of negative value to him. Weber, Mendelssohn,
Meyerbeer, Berlioz, Glinka, Wagner, Liszt, and modern French and Russian composers - these will prove his best guides. It
is useless for a Berlioz or a Gevaert to quote examples from the works of Gluck. The musical idiom is too old-fashioned and
strange to modern ears; such examples are of no further use today. The same may be said of Mozart and of Haydn (the father
of modern orchestration)."
"The gigantic figure of Beethoven stands apart. His music abounds in countless leonine leaps of orchestral imagination,
but his technique, viewed in detail, remains much inferior to his titanic conception. His use of the trumpets, standing out
above the rest of the orchestra, the difficult and unhappy intervals he gives to the horns, the distinctive features of the
string parts and his often highly-coloured employment of the wood-wind, - these features will combine causing the student
of Beethoven to stumble upon a thousand and one points of contradiction."
"It is a mistake to think that the beginner will light upon no simple and instructive examples in modern music, in
that of Wagner and others. On the contrary, clearer, and better examples are to be found amongst modern composers than in
what is called the range of classical music."
"The present work deals with the combination of instruments in separate groups and in the entire orchestral scheme;
the different means of producing strength of tone and unity of structure; the sub-division of parts; variety of colour and
expression in scoring."
Forsythe
Cecil Forsythe, Orchestration, Dover, New York, 1982
Music Scores
Always remember that listening to music while following with a score is also a valid source of information. This is how masters
like Ravel learnt their craft of orchestration.
Here is a short list of suggestions.
Mendelssohn - Incidental Music to The Midsummer's Night Dream
Rimsky-Korsakoff - Capriccio Espagnol
Saint-Saens - Danse Macabre
Ravel - Bolero
Transposing Instruments
This is a very poor title.
Instruments do not transpose.
It is the reading which transposes, not the instrument.
The euphonium is read as a concert-pitch instrument in bass clef
but transposed as a Bb inferior-octave instrument in treble clef.
All transposition is written in treble clef.
Wind instruments are constructed in various keys
but are not necessarily written as transposed in the key of their construction,
as we will later see.
This transposed reading remains a complete mystery
to most pianists and string players.
Key of Construction
Brass instruments (horns, trumpets, trombones, tubas)
are constructed in the key of their Natural Harmonics -
modern horns are usually double,
the player switching at will from coils in F
to coils in a higher Bb;
modern trumpets are usually in Bb,
but can also be found in a variety of different keys;
trombones are usually in Bb, the tenor of the family,
but the alto of the family is in a higher F;
the bass trombone comes in a variety of keys and is often double, like the horn;
tubas are also usually in Bb (an octave below the tenor trombone),
but a higher, smaller Eb version is also common.
Woodwind instruments (flutes, oboes, clarinets, bassoons, saxophones)
are constructed in the key of their normal scale, starting with all the fingers down, -
flutes (and piccolos) are in C;
oboes are also in C, the English horns in a lower F;
clarinets (and bass clarinets) are in Eb, (only the upper register is in Bb),
bassoons (and contra-bassoons) are in F;
saxophones are built in a variety of keys -
the soprano and tenor (as well as the bass) are in Bb;
the alto and baritone (as well as the sopranino) are in Eb.
Reading Transposition
Horn and trumpet parts are writtern differently
for the classical and modern version of the instruments -
the classical instruments, without valves or pistons,
could (in principle) only play their Natural Harmonics,
and their parts were written transposed in the key of their construction
so that the player always read in the key of C;
modern horn parts are always written transposed in F (a fifth higher)
even when the player uses the Bb coils;
modern trumpet parts are written transposed in Bb (a tone higher);
trombone parts are not written transposed but in concert pitch in bass clef,
possibly tenor clef for the higher register,
the alto trombone in alto clef in classical scores;
tuba parts are also written in concert pitch in bass clef.
Woodwind parts are written in a variety of ways -
flutes (and piccolos) are written in concert pitch (the piccolo an octave lower);
oboes are also written in concert pitch,
but english horns are written transposed in F (a fifth higher);
clarinets (and bass clarinets) are written transposed in Bb,
(a tone higher for the clarinet and an octave and a tone higher for the bass clarinet);
bassoons (and contra-bassoons) are written in concert pitch in bass clef,
(an octave higher for the contra-bassoon);
saxophones are written transposed in the key of their construction
so that they can all be played with the same fingerings -
the soprano written transposed in Bb (a tone higher);
the alto written transposed in Eb (a major sixth higher);
the tenor written transposed in Bb (an octave and a tone higher);
the baritone written transposed in Eb (an octave and a major sixth higher);
The whole point of writing parts transposed
is to facilitate the work of the performer
who always places his fingers the same way
when he sees the notes written on the paper.
However, it makes life considerably more complicated
for whoever has to deal with a complete instrumental score.
More and more modern scores are written completely in concert pitch
and only the individual performance parts are transposed.
On to a study of Timbre
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